The Romans establish a province in the south of France, still acknowledged in the name Provence

At the end of his year as consul, Caesar travels north to become governor of northern Italy and southern France

The Celtic leader Vercingetorix inflicts an unaccustomed defeat on Julius Caesar, at Gergovia, but is captured later in the year

In his winter quarters Julius Caesar writes The Gallic War, an account of his own achievements in suppressing the Gauls

The Vandals cross the Rhine into Gaul and move into Spain, from which the Visigoths soon push them on into Africa

The Muslim advance into France is halted when Charles Martel defeats the Arabs between Poitiers and Tours

The Normans, as seen in the Bayeux tapestry, invade England in Viking longships with fortified platforms for archers

The second crusade is led east by two kings, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany

The French king, Philip II, takes Normandy from the English, and follows this success by taking Anjou a year later

Napoleon and the Russian tsar Alexander I meet on a raft at Tilsit and set about carving up Europe

Napoleon III and Cavour hatch a secret plan at Plombièes to tempt Austria into war in north Italy, and agree how to divide up the spoils

A French and Piedmontese army liberates Milan from Austrian rule

The treaty of Turin brings much of north Italy under the control of Cavour (for the kingdom of Sardinia), who in return cedes Savoy and Nice to France

On his second day in power, de Gaulle visits Algiers to confront the settlers with an unwelcome message